Angola: History

Pre-20th-Century History

Angolans have long had a troubled history. The many ethnic groups and tribes - the main ones being Ovimbundu, Kimbundu and Bekongo - consider themselves very different and have rarely seen eye to eye. So when the Portuguese settled coastal Luanda in 1575, the warring tribes plundered and sold each other into slavery in return for food and booze, rather than grouping together against a common enemy.

Brazil was a far more lucrative colony than Angola, so for the next 300 years the Portuguese were content to milk Angola for slaves. It was only at the end of the 19th century, when the Portuguese were forced to stop the slave trade, that they settled inland.

Modern History

Slavery did not endear the colonials to the people. Clashes began after WWII and were inflamed in 1961 when the authorities crushed uprisings.

There were three main groups representing the various African communities and they all took to guerrilla warfare. Although their objective was the same - to oust the Portuguese - tribal rivalries led to splinter groups, reshuffles and plans to destroy each other. They all drew support from differing international sources as well: the FNLA (the National Front for the Liberation of Angola) was supported by northern tribes, Congo (Zaïre) and anti-Communist Western countries; the MPLA (the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola) began with Marxist sensibilities, transcending tribalism in favour of nationalism, and was supported by southern tribes, the USSR, Cuba and other Soviet allies; and Unita (National Union for Total Independence of Angola) originally had the support of the largest tribe, the Ovimbundu, but then formed alliances with the Portuguese right-wing, USA and apartheid South Africa.

In 1975, 400 years after colonisation, the Portuguese finally granted independence to Angola following the overthrow of the fascist government at home. Portugal then set up a transitional government representing themselves and the three different groups. But old tribal rivalries remained, the government collapsed, and Angola plunged into civil war. The Portuguese fled - half a million left in the biggest airlift in history, converting downtown Luanda into a ghost town and robbing the country of its administrative and technical expertise. Angola quickly became a theatre for the playing out of the Cold War. The MPLA seized control of the bulk of Angola and by early 1976 became the governing party. Unita emerged as the main enemy, but American-based oil interests (Chevron and Gulf) still continued to do business in MPLA-controlled areas. This meant that at times, Cuban soldiers guarded American oil interests from American-armed rebels!

In 1988 a ceasefire agreement was set in place by Cuba, the US and Angola, but broke down the following year. However, the end of the Cold War also meant an end to patronage from the superpowers, prompting a fresh accord in 1991. After losing a general election (seen by the UN as largely free and fair) in 1992, Unita returned to war with unprecedented ferocity, claiming the poll was rigged. Almost 200,000 people died between May and October of 1993 as Unita took war to the provincial cities, destroying most of the road, rail and communications infrastructure.

The 'Lusaka Accord' of 1994 was consistently violated by both the governing MPLA and Unita, and the discovery of new diamond areas and oilfields allowed both sides to re-arm. UN sanctions (from 1998) against Unita diamonds caused Unita's cash supply to shrivel, and its control of the countryside gradually crumbled. Increasing military defeats drove a desperate Unita deeper into the hinterland and, at long last, its leader Jonas Savimbi was killed in a well-planned government operation on 22 February 2002.

A peace accord was signed on April 4 2002. Thin and exhausted guerrillas moved with their families (who had been travelling with them as they fought) to an agreed 35 'quartering areas' throughout the country. Senior Unita officials have emphatically declared their commitment to peace and have been absorbed (some may say 'bought off') into the government and army.

Recent History

For the first time in their lives, most Angolans are living without war. Reconstruction of the economy and social sectors is now underway with a strong partnership between UN agencies, NGOs and the government. The question is how to make the government contribute. It has promised the IMF that it will redirect spending to health, education and reconstruction, but progress has been slow. Democratic reforms are yet to materialise, and the government is accused of embezzling billions of dollars of oil revenue.

For now, the sphere of possibilities and opportunities is enough to keep the fires of optimism burning. In a country earning US$100 million daily from its oil exports, hopes - and perils - are high.

In June 2006 the Angolan National football team competed in their first ever World Cup Finals in Germany. Losing to former colonial masters, Portugal and drawing with Mexico and Iran, the team logged one memorable goal (against Iran) and their gutsy performances did more to unite the country that almost half a dozen erstwhile peace treaties.

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